Vasco de Gama rounds the southern tip of Africa, reaches India.

Pedro Alvares Cabral discovers South America. Amerigo Vespucci gains credit for describing the discovery of a new continent.

Sebastian de Ocampo circumnavigates Cuba, ending wishful conjecture that it is an Asian peninsula.

Ponce De Leon discovers the “island of La Florida,” and the Gulf Stream.

Meanwhile, Spaniard Balboa crosses the Isthmus of Panama and discovers the “South Sea”; first inkling that the “Ocean Sea” may be two distinct oceans separated by a land mass.

King Ferdinand appoints De Leon “Adelantado of La Florida” on September 27, 1514.

In search of slaves, Pedro de Salazar makes landfall northwest of the Bahamas; these are the first Europeans on the Carolina coast and first interaction with regional natives.

Martin Luther’s protest of Indulgences begins the Protestant Reformation.

Magellan and El Cano circumnavigate 1519-1522 confirming the “globe hypothesis” and additional information as to the major land mass separating the Atlantic from the Pacific.

The Spaniards invalidated the belief that La Florida is an island by mapping the Gulf Coast from Cape Sable to Texas 1519-1522.

Francisco Gordillo (employed by Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón) & Pedro de Quejo transported ~60 natives from Winyah Bay (South Carolina) to the West Indies; In Spain, “Francisco el Chicorano” imparted tall tales of New World riches and wonders that resonate in Europe in concert with Ayllón’s colonial marketing plan.

Ponce de Leon took over 100 men to SW Florida to attempt a colony; the venture collapsed after five months, his wounding, and subsequent death.

Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón is appointed Governor and Captain General of La Florida.

Verazzano’s North American east coast survey establishes the perception of an Atlantic-Pacific maritime passage that will color European exploration ambitions through the 1580’s.

Under contract from Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pedro de Quejo conducts a coastal survey from Cumberland Island, Georgia beyond Cape Fear, NC; “La Punta de Santa Elena” (Savannah River-Tybee Island) is first reported by Quejo in May as “Rio de la Cruz” which may have later been rendered to Christianity’s finder of the true cross, Santa Elena.

The first European municipality on US soil, San Miguel de Gualdape, is believed to have existed south of Santa Elena ~4 months, but imprecise navigation, geographic ignorance, and poor records, later combined with Spanish artifacts found among natives by DeSoto, reinforced the belief that Ayllón had settled in the vicinity of Santa Elena.

The first African slaves imported on US soil were among the San Miguel Gualdape colonists and the first European-built boat in the US was constructed by the colonists during the expedition.

Pánfilo de Nárvaez with around 400 people lands near Tampa and sets out overland in search of a northern port connection with Mexico. After eight months, only four survived including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca who walked to Mexico City arriving in 1536; and Juan Ortiz who was found living with natives near Tampa by DeSoto in 1539.

Diogo de Ribeiro updated the “padron general” master map of the ever-expanding explored world to include “Santa Elena” as referenced in the 1525-26 Ayllón-sponsored voyages. Some European maps were openly published, but Spain and Portugal considered such maps to be highly classified.

King Henry VIII’s “Act of Supremacy” leads to establishment of the Church of England.

Frenchman Jacques Cartier conducts explorations of North American coast 1534 & 1536.

French King Francis I is alleged to have gotten Papal clarification that sovereignty depended not on claims or earlier Papal Bulls, but on effective occupation.

American settlement became a European “space race”.

Cabeza de Vaca, survivor of the 1528 Narvaez attempt arrives in Mexico City on 24 July with information describing terrain and natives along the Gulf Coast from Tampa to the Mississippi and Texas and into Mexico. He hints at rich provinces north of Mexico, and perhaps in peninsular Florida.

Prompted by the report of Cabeza de Vaca, Coronado (Tristan de Luna as 2nd in command) explored Texas, Kansas, and New Mexico 1540-1542.

Jacques Cartier and about 500 colonists establish Charlesbourg-Royal at Cap-Rouge near present-day Quebec, Canada; settlement lasted less than two years.

An English/French privateer expedition headed for the Spanish Main stops at “Punta de Santa Elena” and replenishes with fresh water.

Henry II and Catherine de Medici assume the French throne. He “worked through his twelve year reign to stamp out Protestantism in France”. Despite royal repression, exiled John Calvin’s writings cause a groundswell of Protestant growth.

Dominican mission to Florida Gulf Coast under Father Cancer recovers Juan Muñoz, member of the De Soto expedition who was captured by Native Americans in 1539.

Francisco Lopez de Gómara’s Historia general de las Indias is printed at Zaragoza. It brings together the Punta de Santa Elena and Ayllon’s tales about “Chicora” – the interior of the southeast. Other books are printed during this decade, suggesting possible riches inland with the Punta de Santa Elena as the entry point.

Spain’s Prince Philip II requests Pedro Menendez de Aviles, a premier mariner of Spain, to accompany him to his arranged marriage with England’s Mary Tudor. Menendez de Aviles receives his second Royal marque authorizing him to fight corsairs in the Indies.

Royal grant issued to New Spain Viceroy Velesco to settle La Florida including the vicinity of Santa Elena.

In a royal decree 9 December 1557, Philip II established Santa Elena-centric strategy that drove Spanish activities for twenty-seven years.

New Spain (Mexico) Viceroy appoints Tristan de Luna, veteran of Coronado explorations, Governor and Capitan General of La Florida.

Philip II reemphasizes Santa Elena-centric strategy that would drive Spanish activities for twenty five years- Insists “La Punta de Santa Elena must be the first of all the La Florida settlements”.

In accordance with Philip II’s Santa Elena strategy, Viceroy of New Spain launches Tristan de Luna and 1500 people to attempt a two-phased colonization operation; establish a base at Pensacola-Mobile Bay (“Polonza”) so as to open an overland route to establish a sea-port colony on Santa Elena. The attempt failed as of April 1561 (~18 months).

Protestantism grows; Huguenots hold their first national synod in France.

England challenges the Treaty of Tordesillas: The Pope’s domain is of the spiritual world and does not have the authority to give or take away earthly kingdoms.

Ten-year old Charles IX (Catherine de Medici’s son) assumes the French throne.

Based on Luna’s failure to complete the overland road, the viceroy of New Spain (Mexico) dispatches Angel de Villafañe with orders that “a settlement be made with all haste at Punta de Santa Elena.” Villafañe abandoned the expedition & reported there was no harbor at Santa Elena which strongly suggests Villafañe was at the wrong place, or was trying to avoid responsibility for not making a settlement and generally trying to end the entire venture.

On 23 September, Philip II ordered the New Spain authorities to report on the truthfulness that Santa Elena was unsuitable for settlement but better prospects might be found north of 35 degrees (Cape Hatteras). The 1562 replies affirmed that conclusion underscoring New Spain’s antipathy towards Atlantic Coast settlement.

Around 22 remaining Frenchmen build a boat and abandon Charlesfort, leaving cabin boy Guillaume Rouffi to live with the Orista Indians.

Jean Ribaut writes The Whole & True Discouerye of Terra Florida during his Tower of London imprisonment while seeking English support to reinforce Charlesfort.

Pedro Menendez’ son, Juan, is lost at sea, possibly on the east coast of La Florida.

Galileo Galilei is born 15 February. His greatest works are still fifty years in the future.

Spanish Captain Manrique de Rojas explores La Florida coast from near present-day Jacksonville northward to find Charlesfort on Santa Elena in June. Manrique captures Rouffi, removes Ribault’s French monument, and returns both to Havana on 10 July.

A second French expedition, under Laudonniere, establishes Fort Caroline on the St. John’s River 22 June with 150 soldiers and 50 civilians including four women.

A reinforcement ship arrives on 4 September, adding some colonists and removing others.

First European children born in North America (at least 8) in 1565

Guillaume Rouffi used as interpreter during Governor Mazariegos’ interrogation of eleven French-Fort Caroline deserters at Havana on 22 December.

Laudonniere finds two Spaniards (Martin Gomez) shipwrecked “fifteen years earlier” off SW Florida, living with Indians in the vicinity of present-day Canaveral.

He sends Captain Thomas Vasseur to Port Royal Sound to make contact with Orista Indians. The Orista send corn and news that the Spanish had captured Rouffi.

English privateer John Hawkins (future commander of Sir Francis Drake) lands at Ft Caroline on 3 August with Frenchman Martin Atinas, a survivor of the 1563 Charlesfort transatlantic raft trip.

Ribault’s seven-ship colonial reinforcement convoy (700 men and 200 women) arrives at Ft Caroline 28 August.

Menendez arrives near Cape Canaveral, starts to search for the French fort, and confronts Ribault’s fleet on the evening of 4 September.

Menendez off-loads troops on 8 September, thereby establishing San Agustín. Guided by a 1564 Fort Caroline mutineer, Francoise Jean, they march 3 days to capture Ft Caroline on 20 September.

On 29 September Menendez executes 111 Huguenots and takes around 15 French Catholics prisoner at Matanzas. On 12 October, Menendez executes Jean Ribault and an additional 70-150 Huguenots at Matanzas.

Some reports alleged Ribault’s red-beard “face scalp” was sent to Philip II, inciting French-Spanish animus and reinforcing the “Black Legend “of Spanish monstrosity echoed in Hemingway’s For Whom the Bell Tolls.

Menendez discovered the near-shore south-flowing current in the Gulfstream probably first used by Ponce de Leon; returned from La Florida to Havana for supplies in December.

Pedro Menendez de Aviles found Hernando Escalante Fontanza and other survivors of a 1546 ship wreck living amongst Native Americans in Southwest Florida. Chief (cacique) “Carlos” gives Menendez his sister, Dona Antonia, as a wife; Menendez moves her to Havana.

Menendez resupplies San Agustín on 21 March, moves northward in early April to find “Guermo”, a French survivor of Ribault’s September 1565 shipwreck, with the native Guale near St Catherine’s Island (he is executed as a heretic Lutheran.)

Menendez then establishes La Ciudad de San Salvador (Santa Elena) on the site of Charlesfort in late April. Guillaume Rouffi (cabin boy for Ribault 1562) is incorporated from Havana as guide and Orista interpreter.

In April, Fort San Salvador is constructed. Captain Juan Pardo arrives at Santa Elena in July with 250 men to reinforce garrison and builds Fort San Felipe (I).

In August, Pedro Menendez designated Esteban de las Alas as Governor of Santa Elena and “Capitan General of La Florida”; Esteban conducted his duties from Santa Elena 1566-1570.

Juan Pardo leads a second expedition from Santa Elena to the interior.

Based on Juan Pardo’s reports, Pedro Menendez selects the area near Guatari (Hickory, NC) as the future site of his 75 mile X 75 mile estate specified in his 1565 La Florida contract.

Phase II of colonization plan – 225 civilian settlers depart Spain in October, 193 of which were in Santa Elena by August 1569. A smaller number went to San Agustin.

Frenchman De Gourgues collaborates with Native Americans to execute a revenge raid against the Spanish at San Mateo (former Ft Caroline).

By October, Santa Elena has 327 residents (around 200 are civilian settlers) with 40 houses. Jesuit missionary work among Native Americans near Santa Elena is initiated by Father Juan Rogel.

Father Juan de Segura mission (with Native American, Don Luís de Velasco) departs to vicinity of future Jamestown on Bahia Santa Maria (Chesapeake).

About this time, artist Jacques LeMoyne, survivor of the 1564-1565 Ft Caroline colony renders knowledge of La Florida as he and Laudonniere would have known it. Before his death in 1588 LeMoyne worked for Sir Walter Raleigh, so this chart, and its perpetuation of Verrazano’s inland sea myth, would have influenced England’s earliest New World colonization planning.

Pedro Menendez dies while in Europe; son-in-law Don Diego Velesco temporarily attaines inherited proprietary rights & duties.

Pedro Menendez the Younger (nephew) and other officials killed at Guale (vicinity St Catherine’s Island) while delivering payroll to Santa Elena.

Leadership passes from Don Diego Velesco to an even less capable son-in–law Hernando de Miranda. Velasco and then Miranda alienates the Indians around Santa Elena and that led to attacks. Miranda allows Santa Elena and Fort San Felipe (I) to be evacuated and destroyed by regional Indian uprising in July 1576. Most settlers are sent to Havana; the formal government and a few settlers moved to San Agustín.

Santa Elena is converted to a Crown Colony.

Pedro Menendez Marques (the founder’s nephew) is appointed governor by Philip II and arrives at San Agustín in July 1577.

French ship, “Le Prince”, under Captain Strozzi, is shipwrecked in vicinity of Santa Elena in December. A fort is built near St Helena Sound.

Eventually the Frenchmen are dispersed in multiple Indian villages around Port Royal Sound, Guale near Saint Catherine’s Island, and with the Cherokee beyond the Appalachians through 1579.

Pedro Menendez Marques arrived at San Agustín in July. Spanish military reoccupied and rebuilt Santa Elena.

Fort San Marcos (I) is built as a pre-fabricated fort in San Agustín, transported to Santa Elena and assembled on the Santa Elena site. Later, Fort San Marcos (II) was built with a water-filled moat closer to the shoreline ~1583, then dismantled on 16 August 1587.

Privateer Frances Drake departs England to plunder Spanish New World riches and ends up circumnavigating the globe. Investors gain a 470% return at Spaniard’s expense of treasure and detailed charts. It is impossible to suppress knowledge of the feat, Queen Elizabeth gives up pretention of disinterested detachment, and endorses Drake through knighthood in 1581, thereby adding to the growing tension with Spain’s Philip II.

Spanish military under Pedro Menendez Marques eliminate pockets of French Le Prince survivors and execute Le Prince Captain Strozzi in San Agustín.

Civilian settlers return to Santa Elena; “La Florida” government remained in San Agustín, but Santa Elena expanded to 60 houses, though many of these were occupied by soldiers and their families, not civilian settlers.

English Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe conduct a reconnaissance of the Outer Banks and Roanoke area.

Sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Richard Grenville leaves Ralph Lane and around 100 men to found a colony at Roanoke.

Pedro Menendez Marques is ordered to find and destroy the English incursion at Roanoke in June.

Against settler protests, Santa Elena abandoned in August, consolidating La Florida settlement around St. Agustín. Spanish missionaries continued to visit the Sea Islands until 1684.

Mary, Queen of Scots (a Catholic who intended to give throne to Spain’s Philip II) is executed by protestant Queen Elizabeth I.

The Spanish Armada invasion fleet fails in an attack on England. This results in a significant change in the European naval balance of power.

Spanish military mission returns to Santa Elena in search of foreign incursions.

Philip II orders an update to the map of the New World consolidating all geographic knowledge gained through the 80 years of Spanish experience in America.

Second charter of the Virginia Company, around 200 investors support Jamestown colony. An innovation: colonial venture financing.

English Captain William Hilton, conducting reconnaissance for the English Lords Proprietors, sees La Punta de Santa Elena and names it “Hilton Head.”

Under the auspices of the Lords Proprietor, ship’s surgeon Henry Woodward arrives at Port Royal Sound to become the first English settler of the Carolinas.

Woodward lived among the Indians, but was eventually taken by the Spanish to San Agustín, picked up by pirates, shipwrecked in Nevis, then joined the 1670 Lords Proprietor settlement fleet bound for Port Royal Sound.

English colonists arrived at Port Royal Sound to find Spanish-speaking Indians and learn of Spanish fort and missions on nearby coast to south. Colonists divert settlement north to establish Charles Town, founded as first English colony in what is today South Carolina.

Treaty of Madrid: Spain recognized English colonies in the Americas, including Charles Town, South Carolina which was founded just before the treaty was signed.

Spanish fleet arrives in Port Royal Sound to enforce territorial claims to La Florida and eliminates the Scottish settlement at Stuart Town.

The Spanish ships continue northward to burn Charleston, but a storm defeats the Spanish fleet.